Celtic Salt: Benefits, Minerals, Uses & How It Compares

Dr. Josh Axe · Free quiz

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Celtic salt, also called Celtic sea salt or sel gris, is a moist, light gray sea salt raked by hand from clay-bottomed salt ponds on the coast of Brittany, France, and left unrefined, so it keeps small amounts of the sea's magnesium, calcium and potassium with nothing added.213 It's the salt I use and recommend, and a light sprinkle on real food every day, plus a pinch in your water, gives your body the sodium and chloride it needs for hydration, nerve and muscle signals and stomach acid, without the additives of refined table salt.1106

Salt matters this much because it's how your body holds on to the water you drink and carries your nerve and muscle signals, and the form you get it in sits at the root of a lot of everyday dehydration.108 Much of the salt people eat today arrives hidden in packaged food, without the potassium that should travel with it,118 and as I've said on my show, the number one reason people are chronically dehydrated is that they're drinking water without getting enough electrolytes, from fruits, vegetables, bone broth and a quality sea salt on their food.8 Celtic salt is one of the easiest ways to put that right.

People on this stretch of the French coast have prized their salt for more than 2,000 years.2 Below you'll find what's in it, what it does in your body, how it compares with Himalayan and table salt, how much to use, and how to use it in your kitchen and your water glass.

Did you know?

• Celtic salt's light gray color comes from tiny particles of algae and plankton in the Guérande salt ponds, not from impurities.2

• The English word salad comes from the Latin salata, meaning salted greens, and the ancient Romans liked to dip their lettuce in salt.1

• The Guérande salt marshes hold about 7,000 crystallization ponds, and their salt has carried the European Union's PGI label, which ties a food to its place and method, since 2012.2

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What is Celtic salt?

Each summer, seawater flows into a patchwork of shallow ponds cut into the clay of the salt marshes, and the sun and wind slowly evaporate it until salt crystals form on the bottom. The salt farmer, called a paludier, draws the gray salt to the edge of the pond with a long-handled wooden tool and leaves it to dry in the sun for another day before gathering it.21 The harvest runs from June at the earliest until September, and the salt goes to market unwashed and with nothing added, which is why it keeps its moisture and some of the sea's minerals.21

The name refers to the Celtic way of farming salt that this stretch of the Breton coast still follows.1 You'll find the same salt sold as sel gris, which is French for gray salt, as grey salt or as French gray sea salt. On calm, sunny days with a gentle breeze, a delicate white crust also forms on the surface of the ponds, and that's fleur de sel, the "flower of salt," skimmed off by hand from the same marshes.2

A short history of Celtic salt

People have been making salt on the Guérande peninsula for about 2,700 years, and Brittany's "white gold" was already a sought-after luxury in Roman times.2 The traditional harvest faded in the 1960s, until a new generation of salt farmers took up the old ponds again in the 1970s and revived the hand methods that are still used today.2 The science of sodium and hydration in the sections that follow shows what all those generations of cooks were getting from it.

Celtic sea salt nutrition: what minerals are in it?

The sodium in different salts is similar, and as I've written, the real difference lies in the trace minerals and additives they contain: unrefined sea salt brings calcium, magnesium and potassium along with dozens of trace minerals, with zero additives.1 USDA hasn't analyzed gray salt in its own laboratory, so the sodium figure comes from the brand owner's label record it lists for a Celtic sea salt, 32,000 mg per 100 grams. That works out to about 480 mg in a quarter teaspoon (1.5 grams), compared with 582 mg in a quarter teaspoon of table salt, which USDA measures at 38,800 mg per 100 grams, a gap that fits a moist salt carrying other minerals besides sodium chloride.1617

Alongside the sodium come the sea's other minerals, in the small amounts you'd expect from something you use by the pinch. When Polish researchers compared six salts from six countries, the French sea salt made from Atlantic seawater was among the richest in magnesium, and a typical day's salt of it, about 5 grams, would supply about 10% of your daily magnesium and about 2% of your iron, according to a 2025 review of their work.3 Laboratory analyses of unrefined sea and rock salts also find copper, manganese, zinc and other elements at trace levels.18

Think of these minerals as a bonus that comes along every time you season your food, and let the rest of your plate do the main work. In my High Blood Pressure Protocol, the foods I build the plate around for these minerals are leafy greens, avocado, beans and lentils, pumpkin seeds and sweet potatoes,12 and our lists of magnesium-rich foods, potassium-rich foods and foods high in calcium give you plenty more.

Is Celtic salt good for you?

In The Biblio Diet, I advise that if whole Celtic sea salt isn't in your kitchen already, you trade your table and seasoning salt for it or for a similar unrefined whole salt.1 Celtic is my first pick among the unrefined salts, and Himalayan salt is the other one I name beside it on my show.2223

Going without salt isn't the goal, and the research is part of the reason. On my show I've pointed out that studies are showing that in most cases it's not ideal to go low salt: you don't want to go crazy, but you do want to sprinkle some quality salt, Celtic, Himalayan or sea salt, on your food on a regular basis.23 The trial behind that point put 152 healthy adults on a week of very low salt and a week of high salt, in random order, so each person tried both. On the low-salt week their insulin resistance score (HOMA) was higher, 2.82 against 2.45, and aldosterone, the adrenal hormone that tells your kidneys to hold on to salt, ran about six times higher, 21.0 against 3.4 ng/dL, along with more of the stress hormone norepinephrine.20 Their average blood pressure was a little lower that week, 78.1 against 82.6 mm Hg, so the low-salt week lowered one number while pushing several others the wrong way.20

I've felt what too little salt does myself. About 12 or 13 years ago, I did a 21-day Daniel Fast of vegetables, fruits and nuts with zero salt, and I felt weak and a little moody. Once I brought a quality salt back, mostly Celtic sea salt with a little pink salt, my energy and hydration improved drastically, and looking back, I wouldn't do that fast again without salt.8

The Bible says of honey, "It is not good to eat much honey" (Proverbs 25:27), and as I've said on my show, that's how I think about sea salt too: use some, just not too much.8 Jesus used salt to describe what his followers are meant to be in the world: "Ye are the salt of the earth: but if the salt have lost his savour, wherewith shall it be salted? it is thenceforth good for nothing, but to be cast out, and to be trodden under foot of men" (Matthew 5:13).24

How Celtic salt works in your body

Salt does three big jobs in your body. It holds water where you need it, it carries the electrical signals of your nerves and muscles, and it supplies the chloride your stomach turns into acid.1056

Sodium is the main mineral in the fluid outside your cells, and water follows it, the same way beads of water rise on a sliced cucumber a few minutes after you salt it.10 That's why a glass of plain water can pass through you quickly, while water with some sodium in it stays with you longer, which is exactly what the hydration trials below measured.13425 Your kidneys were designed to keep that balance for you. When salt runs very low, your body releases renin, aldosterone and noradrenaline to hold on to every bit of sodium it can, and when you eat more potassium, your kidneys let extra sodium and water go.2126

Sodium also powers your nerves and muscles: your nerve signals, and the signals that tell your muscles to contract, start when sodium rushes into a cell through tiny channels in its wall.5 And the chloride half of each crystal is one of the raw materials the cells of your stomach lining use to make hydrochloric acid, the stomach acid that breaks down protein and frees vitamin B12 from your food.627 Together, sodium, chloride and potassium are three of the electrolytes your body runs on, and here's the path from a pinch of salt to each of those jobs:

Celtic sea salt benefits

Does Celtic salt raise blood pressure?

Over the years I have sat with thousands of people handed the same news about their blood pressure, and as I wrote in my High Blood Pressure Protocol, it was never just a salt problem.12 High blood pressure is what your arteries and kidneys do when insulin runs high, the minerals that relax your vessels run low and your nervous system is stuck in overdrive. So the protocol's mineral step pulls out the packaged sodium, refills potassium and magnesium from food and has you cook at home so you control the salt, and its rule is not to salt-load, but not to fear whole foods either.12

For your blood pressure, a mineral-rich salt works much like any other salt: in a trial in which 17 women with high blood pressure each used Himalayan salt for 4 weeks and table salt for 4 weeks, in random order with a break in between, their readings came out the same, 117 against 119 mm Hg systolic, and so did the sodium in their urine.31 Pressure moves when potassium and magnesium go up as sodium comes down: in a trial of 100 older adults with mild to moderate high blood pressure, in which neither the people nor the researchers knew who got which salt, a salt that swapped much of its sodium for potassium and magnesium lowered systolic pressure by 7.6 points over 24 weeks compared with common salt.32

That's the direction the High Blood Pressure Protocol takes with food. As it puts it, the sodium-to-potassium ratio moves pressure more than sodium does, so it aims for 4,000 to 4,700 mg of potassium a day from foods like leafy greens, avocado, beans and sweet potatoes, which signal your kidneys to let extra sodium go.1226 Our high blood pressure diet and list of low-sodium foods put that into meals. Season your own real food lightly with a whole salt, and fill the rest of your plate with potassium.

Celtic salt vs. Himalayan salt, sea salt and table salt

Celtic salt is one of the unrefined sea salts, and specialty salts have their own stories, from Indian black salt to truffle salt.

Celtic salt vs. Himalayan salt

Celtic and Himalayan salt are both whole, unrefined salts, and I recommend sprinkling either one on your food.23 Celtic salt is a moist gray sea salt from the Atlantic coast of France, while Himalayan salt is a dry rock salt mined in Pakistan, with a pink color that comes from a small amount of iron oxide.23 Measured side by side with table salt, pink salt shows the same pattern of small extra minerals: in 31 pink salts bought in Australian shops, 5 grams carried 1,974 mg of sodium along with 13.5 mg of calcium, 13.3 mg of magnesium and 12.0 mg of potassium.19 For blood pressure, a mineral-rich salt works like any other salt, as the section above explains, so choose between the two by taste and texture. Celtic salt's damp, coarse crystals melt into soups and stews and finish a dish with a briny bite, while fine pink salt shakes easily onto food at the table.

Celtic salt vs. table salt

The difference here is bigger, because table salt is refined into nearly pure sodium chloride, and some brands add anti-caking agents such as potassium ferrocyanide, up to 8 mg per kilogram, to keep it flowing.3 Celtic salt goes from the pond to your kitchen with nothing added, keeps its moisture and brings a little more of the sea's minerals with it, and that's why I recommend swapping the table salt in your pantry for a whole salt like it.1 Iodized table salt does carry iodine, and the safety section covers how to get yours from food instead.

How much Celtic salt per day?

The amounts I give on my show follow how much you sweat. If you're not moving much, you need around 1,500 to 2,300 mg of sodium a day, which is about two-thirds to one teaspoon of salt, and a lot of that may already be in the food you're eating. If you're lightly active, it's about 1 to 1½ teaspoons, and if your workouts make you sweat, about 1½ to 2.8 Guidelines set 1,500 mg of sodium a day as an adequate intake for adults and advise bringing your intake down when it runs above 2,300 mg.34 That teaspoon math is for fine table salt, which carries 2,328 mg of sodium per teaspoon; a teaspoon of Celtic salt carries about 1,920 mg by its label, so the same amount of sodium takes a little more of it.1716 Our guide to how much sodium per day goes deeper into the numbers.

I've also seen people on social media telling you to use teaspoon after teaspoon, and that's likely too much; you want to find the balance.8 Most of the sodium in a typical day doesn't come from your own salt at all, which is why my protocol has you cook at home so you control the salt.12

How to use Celtic salt

Celtic salt works anywhere you'd use salt, and its moist, coarse crystals and briny flavor make it a little different to cook with.

In your cooking

Because Celtic salt dissolves more slowly than table salt, it's at its best in soups and stews, where it has time to melt in, and as a finishing salt over fish, chicken and vegetables, where its complex flavor comes through.1 For baking, or any recipe where the salt has to dissolve completely, buy it fine-ground or grind it finer yourself. It tastes a little different from table salt because of its minerals, so add it a little at a time and taste as you go.1 It keeps its moisture however you store it, so a lidded jar or salt crock by the stove keeps it clean and ready, and you can crumble any clumps between your fingers.1

Celtic salt in water

Salting your water is one of the simplest habits you can build into your day: start by adding a pinch of Celtic sea salt to each glass of water, preferably at room temperature, or ¼ teaspoon to every quart, which is about four glasses. Don't gulp it down: drink a glass first thing in the morning, spread the rest through your day, front-loading it earlier so it doesn't wake you at night,35 and adjust the salt to taste and to how your body feels, using a little less if the water tastes too salty.1 In my Perimenopause & Menopause Protocol, the daily water is half your body weight in ounces, filtered, with a pinch of sea salt, and in the Mitochondrial Longevity Protocol, electrolytes go in on training and sauna days.1415

A quarter teaspoon of Celtic salt in a quart works out to about 22 mmol of sodium per liter, a little under the 27 mmol/L drink that held water better in the trial above.164 On a long, sweaty day you can go stronger: the 50 mmol/L drink that sharpened the tennis players' strokes is a little over ½ teaspoon of Celtic salt per liter.716 You also don't want to overdo salt, because too much can dehydrate you as well; you want that perfect amount, a little salt here and there, with potassium-rich foods like sweet potatoes and fruit beside it.35 Some people take a few grains under the tongue in the morning instead, and a pinch stirred into a glass of water gets the same salt into you in an amount you can see, with the water to go with it.

As a gargle and nasal rinse

For a sore throat or a stuffy nose, dissolve sea salt in warm water. Most people in the Edinburgh cold trial used a 3% solution, 3 grams of salt in every 100 mL of water, which is about 1¼ teaspoons of fine salt in a cup, and they rinsed their noses and gargled up to six times a day for the first two days of a cold, then less as they improved.9 For your nose, use only distilled, sterile or previously boiled water, boiled for 3 to 5 minutes and cooled to lukewarm.36 Our guides to the neti pot and to sore throat remedies walk you through both.

For your skin and bath

Coarse Celtic salt makes a simple body scrub when you mix it with a little oil, and a handful in a warm bath turns it into a mineral soak. Our recipes for a homemade body scrub and homemade healing bath salts show you how.

Celtic salt recipes: homemade electrolyte drinks

When you don't have an electrolyte drink on hand, you can make your own at home in two minutes, and these three are the ones I give.8 The trouble with a lot of packaged electrolyte drinks is that they carry far too much sodium without the balance they should have,22 while these pair a little unrefined salt with the potassium in fruit, lemon or coconut water.

Lemon-honey salt water

This is the simplest of the three, with lemon and a little raw honey.8

Salted watermelon cooler

Watermelon juice brings its own potassium and a light sweetness, so it needs only a small pinch of salt.8

Salted coconut water

Coconut water is very high in potassium and carries magnesium, but it doesn't have a lot of sodium, and a little salt turns it into a natural sports drink.8

For a long workout or race day, try the raw honey and salt mix I used when I raced triathlons, described in the benefits section above.28

Celtic salt side effects and who should be careful

If your doctor has set a salt limit. With heart failure, kidney disease or high blood pressure that rises with salt, keep to the amounts your care plan sets for salt and potassium; you still get the swap to a whole salt with nothing added. In a trial of 213 adults aged 50 to 75 in which each person spent a week adding about 2,200 mg of sodium a day and a week at a very low 500 mg in total, average blood pressure fell on the low-sodium week in 73.4% of them.39 If your blood sodium runs low instead, our guide to hyponatremia explains that different problem.

Iodine. Unrefined salt carries almost no iodine: a quarter teaspoon of non-iodized sea salt has about 0.02 mcg, against 78.2 mcg in iodized table salt.33 In a kitchen that uses Celtic salt, your iodine comes from wild fish, sea vegetables, eggs and dairy, the iodine-rich foods to keep on your plate, and if those rarely make it there, iodized salt is the dependable fallback.

Microplastics. Sea salts carry tiny plastic fibers from the ocean, and the amount tracks how polluted the local seawater is.40 In a U.S. study, two Celtic-labeled sea salts held 113 and 187 human-made particles per kilogram, below the 212 average across the salts tested, or about one particle a day at most from a full teaspoon, and tap water supplied 88% of the estimated intake from salt, beer and tap water together,41 so your drinking water matters far more here than your salt, and our guide to microplastics covers the rest.

Metals. In tests of 18 unrefined salts, including a Guérande gray salt, none contained arsenic or mercury, though some held small amounts of other metals such as lead and cadmium,42 so buy from a seller that publishes its contaminant testing.

Signs you're overdoing it. In a Norwegian population study of more than 43,000 people, those who always added extra table salt to their food had 1.7 times the odds of severe heartburn or regurgitation, an association rather than proof.43 Puffiness and water weight, a sluggish feeling or home blood-pressure readings that creep up are your cue to use a little less salt and add more potassium-rich food.812

The bottom line

Celtic salt: frequently asked questions

References

1. Axe J, Rubin J. The Biblio Diet. Hachette Book Group; 2025. ISBN 9781546008439. Salt chapter ("Please Pass the Salt"): the salt "we use and recommend, whole Celtic sea salt"; harvested in Brittany, France, also known as sel gris, retains its moisture; the name refers to the Celtic traditional method of salt farming; the sodium content of different salts is similar and the difference lies in trace minerals and additives; dissolves more slowly than table salt, good in soups and stews and as a finishing salt; grind it fine for baking; "Salt Your Water": a pinch of Celtic sea salt in each glass of water or 1/4 teaspoon per quart; the Latin salata; "Take Action Now": trade table salt for Celtic sea salt or a similar unrefined whole salt.
2. Paul S. Salt from Guérande salt marshes: the taste of the sea. Taste France Magazine (French agri-food promotion); September 7, 2020 (accessed November 4, 2026). Salt works on the peninsula going back 2,700 years; "white gold" in Roman times; faded in the 1960s and revived in the 1970s; clay soil and 7,000 crystallization ponds; gray salt drawn to the pond edge by the paludier and dried in the sun; harvest June to September; light gray color due not to impurities but to tiny particles of algae and plankton; fleur de sel forms on calm, sunny days; unwashed and additive-free; PGI since 2012.
3. Chudy S, Makowska A, Kowalski R. Sodium Chloride in Food. Foods. 2025;14(15):2741. doi:10.3390/foods14152741. PMID:40807678
4. Maughan RJ, Watson P, Cordery PAA, Walsh NP, Oliver SJ, Dolci A, et al. Sucrose and Sodium but not Caffeine Content Influence the Retention of Beverages in Humans Under Euhydrated Conditions. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2019;29(1):51-60. doi:10.1123/ijsnem.2018-0047. PMID:29893590
5. Grider MH, Jessu R, Kabir R. Physiology, Action Potential. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2023. PMID:30844170
6. Varela-Chinchilla CD, Segura N. Histology, Parietal Cells. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2023. PMID:31613538
7. Munson EH, Orange ST, Bray JW, Thurlow S, Marshall P, Vince RV. Sodium Ingestion Improves Groundstroke Performance in Nationally-Ranked Tennis Players: A Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Crossover Trial. Front Nutr. 2020;7:549413. doi:10.3389/fnut.2020.549413. PMID:33072795
8. Axe J. How to Hydrate Your Brain, Boost Energy & End Brain Fog. The Dr. Josh Axe Show. August 18, 2025. His 21-day Daniel Fast without salt, 4:30 to 6:40; too much sodium without potassium and water weight, 7:44; patients and their drinks, 8:16 to 8:48; water without electrolytes as the number one reason for chronic dehydration, 9:57; coconut water, its sodium and a quarter teaspoon of salt, 25:23; honey and sea salt, just not too much, and teaspoon after teaspoon as likely too much, 28:09; sodium needs by activity level, 31:21 to 32:27; homemade electrolyte drinks, 35:43 to 36:50 (YouTube times). YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8nmGynV_jjQ
9. Ramalingam S, Graham C, Dove J, Morrice L, Sheikh A. A pilot, open labelled, randomised controlled trial of hypertonic saline nasal irrigation and gargling for the common cold. Sci Rep. 2019;9(1):1015. doi:10.1038/s41598-018-37703-3. PMID:30705369
10. Shrimanker I, Bhattarai S. Electrolytes. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2023. PMID:31082167
11. Harnack LJ, Cogswell ME, Shikany JM, Gardner CD, Gillespie C, Loria CM, et al. Sources of Sodium in US Adults From 3 Geographic Regions. Circulation. 2017;135(19):1775-1783. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.116.024446. PMID:28483828
12. Axe J. The High Blood Pressure Protocol. DrAxe.com. 2026. p. 3 (letter: thousands of people handed the same verdict; high blood pressure as insulin, minerals and the nervous system; "It was never just a salt problem"), p. 11 (Step 2, Remineralize: pull out packaged sodium; cook at home so you control the salt; do not salt-load, but do not fear whole foods either; 4,000-4,700 mg potassium a day from food; leafy greens, avocado, beans, lentils, pumpkin seeds, sweet potato), p. 22 (troubleshooting and FAQ: about 70% of dietary sodium from packaged and restaurant food; the sodium-to-potassium ratio moves pressure more than sodium).
13. Maughan RJ, Watson P, Cordery PA, Walsh NP, Oliver SJ, Dolci A, et al. A randomized trial to assess the potential of different beverages to affect hydration status: development of a beverage hydration index. Am J Clin Nutr. 2016;103(3):717-23. doi:10.3945/ajcn.115.114769. PMID:26702122
14. Axe J. Perimenopause & Menopause: The 90-Day Healing Protocol. DrAxe.com. 2026. p. 21 (7-day meal plan, daily drinks: "Water — half your body weight in ounces, filtered, pinch of sea salt").
15. Axe J. Heal Your Cells: The Mitochondrial Longevity Protocol. DrAxe.com. 2026. Phase 2 (Charge), supplement focus: electrolytes on training and sauna days.
16. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. FoodData Central: CELTIC SEA SALT (Branded Foods; label data from the brand owner). FDC ID 1212414. Serving 1.5 g (1/4 tsp); sodium 32,000 mg per 100 g as labeled. Published February 26, 2021. Accessed November 4, 2026.
17. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. FoodData Central: Salt, table (SR Legacy). FDC ID 173468. Sodium 38,800 mg, calcium 24 mg, magnesium 1 mg, potassium 8 mg per 100 g; 1 tsp = 6 g. Accessed November 4, 2026.
18. Karavoltsos S, Sakellari A, Bakeas E, Bekiaris G, Plavšić M, Proestos C, et al. Trace elements, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, mineral composition, and FT-IR characterization of unrefined sea and rock salts: environmental interactions. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. 2020;27(10):10857-10868. doi:10.1007/s11356-020-07670-2. PMID:31950411
19. Fayet-Moore F, Wibisono C, Carr P, Duve E, Petocz P, Lancaster G, et al. An Analysis of the Mineral Composition of Pink Salt Available in Australia. Foods. 2020;9(10):1490. doi:10.3390/foods9101490. PMID:33086585
20. Garg R, Williams GH, Hurwitz S, Brown NJ, Hopkins PN, Adler GK. Low-salt diet increases insulin resistance in healthy subjects. Metabolism. 2011;60(7):965-8. doi:10.1016/j.metabol.2010.09.005. PMID:21036373
21. Graudal NA, Hubeck-Graudal T, Jurgens G. Effects of low sodium diet versus high sodium diet on blood pressure, renin, aldosterone, catecholamines, cholesterol, and triglyceride. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2020;12(12):CD004022. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004022.pub5. PMID:33314019
22. Axe J. Top 10 Reasons You're Not Healing. The Dr. Josh Axe Show. May 12, 2025. Many electrolyte drinks carry far too much sodium without balance, at 25:25; a little Celtic sea salt or Himalayan salt on meals and mineral-rich bone broth, at 25:35. YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bjU77gf__x4&t=1535s
23. Axe J. The Truth About LDL & Heart Disease. The Dr. Josh Axe Show. 2026. The low-salt trial, and sprinkle Celtic, Himalayan or quality sea salt on your food regularly, at 37:13 to 37:47. YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MpzqVv_b4OU&t=2233s
24. The Holy Bible, King James Version. Matthew 5:13.
25. Shirreffs SM, Taylor AJ, Leiper JB, Maughan RJ. Post-exercise rehydration in man: effects of volume consumed and drink sodium content. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1996;28(10):1260-71. doi:10.1097/00005768-199610000-00009. PMID:8897383
26. McDonough AA, Veiras LC, Guevara CA, Ralph DL. Cardiovascular benefits associated with higher dietary K(+) vs. lower dietary Na(+): evidence from population and mechanistic studies. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2017;312(4):E348-E356. doi:10.1152/ajpendo.00453.2016. PMID:28174181
27. Axe J. Acid Reflux & GERD Protocol. DrAxe.com. 2026. Section 10, "Why it's where the acid goes, not how much"; section 11, "What reflux depletes": stomach acid helps absorb several key nutrients; it frees vitamin B12 from food, and non-heme iron absorption depends on it.
28. Axe J. Table Salt vs. Himalayan Salt: Which Is Better? The Dr. Axe Show. 2017. The salty flavor in Chinese medicine drives things down and supports the kidneys, at 8:33; use it sparingly, but a little every day, at 10:58; his triathlon mix of raw local honey and salt, at 13:30. YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ul0q0_PTMvs&t=513s
29. Yusuf OM, Ramalingam S, Norrie J, Graham C, Kakakhail A, Rextin AT, et al. Hypertonic saline nasal irrigation and gargling for suspected or confirmed COVID-19: Pragmatic randomised controlled trial (ELVIS COVID-19). J Glob Health. 2024;14:05027. doi:10.7189/jogh.14.05027. PMID:39666578
30. Axe J. Ancient Remedies. Little, Brown Spark; 2021. The water element and the salty flavor (kidneys, adrenals, bladder), sea salt among the salty foods, in moderation (chapter "The Wisdom of Ancient Healing", running head p. 78).
31. Loyola IP, Sousa MF, Jardim TV, Mendes MM, Barroso WKS, Sousa ALL, et al. Comparison between the Effects of Hymalaian Salt and Common Salt Intake on Urinary Sodium and Blood Pressure in Hypertensive Individuals [Comparação entre os Efeitos da Ingestão de Sal do Himalaia e de Sal Comum sobre os Valores de Sódio Urinário e Pressão Arterial em Indivíduos Hipertensos]. Arq Bras Cardiol. 2022;118(5):875-882. doi:10.36660/abc.20210069. PMID:35137791
32. Geleijnse JM, Witteman JC, Bak AA, den Breeijen JH, Grobbee DE. Reduction in blood pressure with a low sodium, high potassium, high magnesium salt in older subjects with mild to moderate hypertension. BMJ. 1994;309(6952):436-40. doi:10.1136/bmj.309.6952.436. PMID:7920126
33. Heydorn K, Wambogo E, Spungen JH, Ershow AG, Gahche JJ, Haggans C, et al. USDA, FDA, and ODS-NIH Database for the Iodine Content of Common Foods, Release 4.0. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Methods and Application of Food Composition Laboratory; October 2024. Sea salt, non-iodized, 1/4 tsp: 0.02 mcg; iodized table salt 78.2 mcg.
34. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; Health and Medicine Division; Food and Nutrition Board; Committee to Review the Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium. Oria M, Harrison M, Stallings VA, editors. Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press; 2019. Summary, Table S-2 (sodium adequate intake 1,500 mg/day for adults; chronic disease risk reduction intake: reduce intakes if above 2,300 mg/day, 14 years and older). doi:10.17226/25353
35. Axe J. The Real Reason You Wake Up Tired Every Morning. The Dr. Josh Axe Show, Episode 377. August 3, 2026. Front-load water earlier in the day, a pinch of sea salt, not overdoing salt, and potassium-rich foods, at 16:33 to 17:02. YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UYvHrFB_g50&t=1004s
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